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The NIH is committed to ensuring that prospective research participants — and the people who speak for and love them — are given clear, complete, and accurate information about the risks and benefits of participating in research. We are strongly committed to supporting critical research studies like SUPPORT, which inform clinical care by providing rigorous evidence for use in daily practice. This controversy has alarmed some of the parents of infants who were in the study, confused the biomedical research community, and befuddled IRBs. Several other studies seeking new insights to improve care for these vulnerable infants have been put on hold as the field tries to understand the OHRP findings.
For both private and public systems in the United States, the pathway to patient access to a device starts with the submission of an application to the FDA. The FDA reviews innovative, high-risk devices for safety and effectiveness (clinical benefit) under the premarket approval (PMA) process, and information on the duration of reviews is publicly available. In fiscal year 2011, the FDA approved 40 applications for PMA. The average review time was 13.1 months, with 8.4 months attributed to FDA review time, and 4.7 months to the time the agency waits for the sponsor to address deficiencies in the application (“sponsor timeâ€).3 CMS provides reimbursement for the majority of devices when they earn FDA approval. For a limited number of devices each year, however, CMS conducts a national coverage determination in response to external requests for validation or for devices that have limited or conflicting evidence of clinical benefit. This process averaged 8.6 months over the past 5 fiscal years.4 Although it is difficult to obtain data on how long private insurers take to make coverage decisions, anecdotal information from private insurers suggests that decisions are made within a few weeks to a few months after FDA approval, depending on the amount and quality of evidence of clinical benefit.
Depending on patients' frailty and disability status, the desirable outcome and treatment choices might vary: different patients place different values on benefits and risks. Certain adverse events, such as dizziness leading to falls, may be of greater importance in the geriatric population. The design of a clinical trial should consider age-appropriate end points; for older people, functional outcomes may be most important, and an emphasis on such outcomes could lead to reduced costs for health care systems.
A 400-Gram Female Infant Delivered at 24 and 4/7 Weeks.
In France, a centralized body makes reimbursement decisions after assessing the safety and effectiveness of individual devices. Reimbursement decisions in Italy are devolved to the various regions, and Britain and Germany conduct broader assessments of device types or procedures, rather than of individual devices. Typically, innovative devices not covered under an existing diagnosis-related group (DRG) require review under the lengthier Health Technology Assessment process, which assesses safety, clinical benefit, and cost-effectiveness. Government-provided information on time to reimbursement varies by country. Estimated time frames are an average of 71.3 months in Germany, a range of 36.0 to 48.0 months in France, a range of 16.4 to 26.3 months in Italy, and an estimated 18 months in Britain.
Despite such caveats, the results presented by Ray et al. warrant serious attention. A chief strength of the results is the time-limited pattern of the risk: the azithromycin-associated increase in the rates of death from any cause and from cardiovascular causes spanned days 1 through 5, reflecting the typical 5-day duration of azithromycin administration (e.g., Zithromax Z-Pak). On days 6 through 10, an elevated risk of death from cardiovascular causes was no longer detected. This pattern is consistent with the timing of peak plasma azithromycin concentrations and the concomitant risk of QT-interval prolongation. The elevated risk was statistically significant, regardless of whether azithromycin treatment was compared with amoxicillin or with nonuse of an antibacterial drug. Furthermore, the observed excess mortality was attributable solely to cardiovascular deaths and, in particular, to sudden cardiac death; although sudden cardiac death can result from causes other than arrhythmias, an increase in deaths in this category would be the pattern expected from an arrhythmogenic, QT-interval–prolonging drug. Also, the azithromycin-associated risk was higher among patients with cardiovascular disorders, which is consistent with a drug-related arrhythmia.
In almost every country, the proportion of people over 60 years of age is growing faster than any other age group, as a result of longer life expectancy and declining fertility rates. In Europe, the median age is already the highest in the world, and in 2050 there are projected to be 88.5 million Americans 65 years old or older — more than double the 40.3 million in the 2010 census.
To compare the United States and Europe fairly on this front, three criteria must be considered: the level of device innovation, equivalent start and end points, and patient access as defined by time to reimbursement. First, we focused on innovative, high-risk devices because in the United States such devices require the strongest evidence of clinical benefit and are the subject of most debates about the relative effectiveness of approval processes in different countries. Furthermore, previous studies have shown that lower-risk devices achieve market access in a similar amount of time in the United States and in Europe.
To further illustrate this point, we compared the time to approval for five innovative, high-risk medical devices available in France, Italy, and the United States (see tableComparison of Time to Market Access for Five Innovative Devices in France, Italy, and the United States.). These case studies indicate that the average time to market access for these devices was 26.3 months in France, 30.8 months in Italy, and 15.3 months in the United States.
Clinicians must consider the arrhythmogenic potential not only of azithromycin but also of potential alternative antibacterial drugs. An earlier study showed an association between the use of erythromycin and sudden cardiac death, augmented by concomitant use of inhibitors of the cytochrome P-450 3A isozymes that metabolize erythromycin.4 Labels for erythromycin and clarithromycin include warnings regarding QT-interval prolongation and arrhythmias. All labels for fluoroquinolone products similarly have warnings regarding QT-interval prolongation, and grepafloxacin was withdrawn from the market because of that risk. A recent observational study of elderly residents of Quebec, Canada, showed an association between outpatient fluoroquinolone use and serious arrhythmias (as defined by hospital discharge diagnoses of ventricular arrhythmia or sudden or unattended death).5 And although Ray et al. found the risk of cardiovascular death to be greater with azithromycin than with ciprofloxacin, they found the risk with levofloxacin similar to that with azithromycin. The authors interpreted this similarity as evidence that levofloxacin may be proarrhythmic; however, levofloxacin was not implicated as proarrhythmic in the Canadian study.
The study by Ray et al. has limitations that are intrinsic to observational, nonrandomized clinical studies. In particular, nonrandomized studies cannot exclude the possibility that patients receiving a drug under evaluation differ from control patients in some important but undetected way, causing bias in the results. Such confounding may bias comparisons not only between patients receiving antibacterial drugs and those receiving no antibacterials but also between patients receiving different antibacterials. Although Ray et al. used appropriate analytic methods to address potential confounding, we cannot know for certain whether these methods were fully successful. Replication of the authors' results, through analysis of a distinct data set, would provide more confidence in the finding of increased cardiovascular mortality among patients receiving azithromycin.
The U.S. process for approving innovative, high-risk medical devices has been criticized for taking longer than the European approval process.1 This contention is often used to support the argument that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) should lower its standards for approving medical devices, since a slow approval process is delaying Americans' access to innovative and lifesaving technology. But a review of the data, using appropriate end points, suggests instead that it takes the same amount of time or less for patients to gain access to innovative, high-risk medical devices in the United States as it does in the four largest European markets (Germany, France, Italy, and Britain)2 — largely because patient access is generally delayed until reimbursement decisions are made, which often takes substantially longer in Europe than in the United States.
After 17 months of hearings, in which pharmaceutical executives were openly berated for profiteering and doctors were portrayed as dupes of pharmaceutical companies' marketing departments, Kefauver presented his bill, S.1552. Perhaps its least controversial components were its calls for ensuring that the FDA review claims of efficacy before drug approval, monitor pharmaceutical advertising, and ensure that all drugs had readable generic names. More radically, Kefauver proposed completely overhauling the relationship between patents and therapeutic innovation. First, he proposed a compulsory licensing provision so that all important new drugs would generate competitive markets after 3 years. Second, and more controversial still, Kefauver wanted to eliminate “me-too drugs†and “molecular modifications†by insisting that a new drug be granted a patent only if it produced a therapeutic effect “significantly greater than that of the drug before modification.â€1 Proving that a drug worked, according to Kefauver, was not enough: he wanted proof that a drug worked better than its predecessors. In contemporary terms, he wanted to know its comparative effectiveness.
Most European patients do not have access to innovative, high-risk devices as soon as the devices receive a CE marking. Each country must first make a decision about reimbursement, a process that varies substantially among countries.5 Though a CE marking can be granted on the basis of fewer clinical data than are required for FDA approval, European standards for reimbursement are often similar to or higher than those that the FDA imposes for device approval. European countries may require additional data on the device's safety and effectiveness, as well as on cost-effectiveness.
Another unintended consequence of the amendments was that the new structures of proof changed not only the behavior of the pharmaceutical industry but also the conceptual categories used by biomedical researchers around the world.5 Pharmaceutical research came to be overwhelmingly organized around the placebo-controlled, randomized, controlled trial. Although this system has greatly helped researchers gauge the efficacy of an individual drug, it has also rendered data on comparative efficacy much more difficult — and much more expensive — to find or produce.
The acquisition of relevant data to elucidate the benefit–risk ratio in the target population requires more than merely balancing the absolute numbers of patients. Depending on the drug's profile and the target population, investigators will face a learning curve with regard to acquiring data and modulating risk for patients who might be more susceptible to adverse outcomes, such as frail patients or those taking multiple medications. In designing a strategic plan for drug development, it will be important to engage in a dialogue with regulators to ensure that the needs and requirements of older patients are considered. Investigation of population pharmacokinetics or a specific pharmacokinetic study including the very elderly should be performed and will help inform prescribing. Modeling and simulation can offer powerful tools for quantitatively evaluating differences in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, recommending dosing regimens, and identifying patients at risk. Some of the lessons learned from the experience in pediatric clinical trials can be applied to the older population; heterogeneity can, in some measure, be allowed and analyzed in clinical-trial design both before and after market authorization.
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has completed a head-to-head bioequivalence study of single doses of the generic drug Budeprion XL 300 mg (extended-release bupropion hydrochloride, manufactured by Impax Laboratories and distributed by Teva Pharmaceuticals) and the brand-name drug Wellbutrin XL 300 mg (Biovail). The agency has concluded that Budeprion XL 300 mg cannot be considered therapeutically equivalent to the brand-name product. We at the FDA are therefore changing our bioequivalence recommendations for extended-release bupropion products and have asked other manufacturers of 300-mg extended-release bupropion products to conduct additional bioequivalence studies.
Chronologic age alone is inadequate for characterizing the population enrolled in a clinical trial. Frailty is a predictor of clinical outcomes,4 and the reduction of frailty has benefits for individuals and society. The EMA is exploring the possibility of reaching a consensus on an operational definition of frailty and tools for evaluating it that could be used for clinical research and to guide therapeutic decisions.
Inappropriate formulations and packaging may contribute to low adherence, medication errors, and safety and efficacy problems. Additional considerations for a largely elderly population will include the need for easy administration, possible dose reduction, the effects of visual and motor impairment, and the likelihood of polypharmacy. If appropriate, protocols should be designed for evaluating patients' ability to manage their own medications. Regulators should also look favorably on nondrug technologies such as information and communication technology systems for monitoring adherence or clinical signs.
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